Language and memory Essay Example for Free

Langu season and memory EssayLimitations with the study included the sample range being too small. This means that it is difficult to make generalisations because 20 undergraduate students toleratenot possibly be representative of the sample population. In order to improve the experiment, a wider sample range could be used, including people from different age groups and ethnic backgrounds.Another limitation was gender bias. The driver in the vignette was male which could have meant that male participants may have been more sympathetic to him when adult an estimation. If a female character had been used, the results may have been different. This could be improved by using two sample groups, both with female characters, but once again with either the smashed into condition or bumped into condition.The results of this and previous studies have a number of implications in todays society. Loftus and Palmers work (1974), showed how changing a verb in a sentence, can alter eyewitnes s recall of a car accident. These findings have major implications for the Legal Justice Systems. In a study by Rattner (1988), a check into of 205 cases of wrongful arrest showed that 52% of the cases were associated with mistaken eyewitness testimonies. These results highlighted the unreliability of eyewitness testimony.Other studies have demonstrated that witnesses sometimes cannot attribute memory to its appropriate sources, or that they make source attribution errors. When witnesses get information from other witnesses and from the police, then their own recollection is likely to be contaminated (Fisher, 1995). This is yet further present suggesting that there should be less dependence on eyewitness testimony, and with the arrival of advanced gene technology, it is now possible to use alternative sources of evidence.ReferencesCarlson, N. R., Buskist, W., Martin, G. N. (2000). Psychology The knowledge of Behaviour, 266-267Loftus, E. F. and Palmer, J. E. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction an example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 13, 585-589.Fisher, R. P., (1995). Interviewing victims and witnesses of crime. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 1(4), 732-764.Nisha Ghei Eyewitness Practical

Psychology of Color Essay Example for Free

Psychology of Color EssayThe brain receives signals from three divergent contort take redness, dark- fellned, and green. When the brain receives a mix of these signals, we perceive affectations that argon mixtures of these three primary illusions through a process c altogethered rubric addition (Think pastime Color Psychology). All colored visible light can be expressed as either mixtures or incorporateencies of red, blue, or green, which by intuition between the eyes and the brain, produces the vast spectrum of color that exists to humans and separate organisms a standardized. With the ability to alter our moods and bodily functions, color has more than of an impact on us than we whitethorn realize.Each color produces varied set up on humans, bringing about numerous physiological and psychological changes as unique as the color itself. Its armorial bearing everywhere in our daily lives makes these effects inevitable, no matter how unaw be we be of them. colors not only alter the state of our mind and dust only can to a fault reveal a lot about ourselves, including our personality, experiences, and ability to evoke memories. Colors can be categorized into two groups, fond colors and cool colors. Warm colors consist of any shade of red, orange tree, yellow, and pink.They can evoke emotions ranging from intuitive feelings of warmth and comfort to feelings of anger and hostility. Cool colors consist of greens, blues, and purples. Although they generally create a calming, soothing effect, they can also bring feelings of sadness or indifference (Kendra Cherry Color Psychology How Colors preserve Moods, Feelings, and Behaviors). Although each of the colors within these two groups produces altercations somewhat similar to those of its group members, they create their own objective, oneness-of-a-kind effects on the human body and mind.Red is one of the three primary colors, as well as one of three different color channels the brain receives s ignals from. It represents blood, heat, passion, esteem, intensity, danger, and is often associated with Christmas and Valentines Day (Nicholson, Mary, Dr. Colors and Moods). Being a very stimulating color, whenever the sight of it is picked up and signaled to the brain, red activates the adrenal glands. Physiologically, red can increase heart rate, respiration, appetite, and blood pressure. It can also raise stamina and improve the functioning of the central nervous system (Kate Smith, Color Meaning, Symbolism, and Psychology).The psychological effects of red include feelings of anger, vitality, and a sense datum impression of protection from fears and anxieties. Red can also increase enthusiasm, irritability, and sensationalism. With its ability to dispel negative thoughts, it encourages confidence, action, and ambition (Think Quest). In a study by professor of psychological science Andrew Elliot and researcher Daniela Niesta, it has been demonstrated that the color red makes men feel more amorous towards women (Science Daily Red Enhances Mens Attraction to Women, Psychological lead Reveals).Even before the experiment, research provided both empirical and biological support to Elliot and Niestas claim. Empirically, red has been associated with romantic love and passions across cultures and the millennia. Biologically, they found faith in humans deep evolutionary roots to primates. Research has shown that nonhuman male primates are particularly attracted to females displaying red. Female baboons and chimpanzees, for example, redden conspicuously when nearing ovulation, sending a clear sexual signal designed to attract males (Science Daily).The study looked at mens responses to photographs of women under various color presentations. In one experiment, progenys were shown a photograph of a woman framed by a border of red and either white, gray, green or blue. The men were then asked questions about how cute they found the women to be. Another experiment consisted of two photos of the same woman in which the womans shirt was digitally colored either red or blue. Along with questions concerning attraction, they were also asked about their intentions about dating, such as Imagine that you are going on a date with this person and begin $ blow in your wallet.How much money would you be willing to spend on your date? (Science Daily). The results of the experiment showed that under all conditions, the women wearing or framed by red were rated significantly graduate(prenominal)er in attractiveness and sexual desirability than the exact same woman shown with any other color. Those whose party favorite color is red are typically outgoing, impulsive, aggressive, and restless in personality. Red is a color chosen by those who carry an open nature and a zest for bearing (Annie B. Bond, Your Favorite Color What it Says About You). Orange is a color that commands much attention.It represents warmth, enthusiasm, exuberance, liveliness and is a lso associated with Thanksgiving and Halloween (Nicholson). Physiologically, orange can stimulate the sexual organs, get the digestive system, and strengthen the immune system. It incites activity, brotherlyization, and imputable to its hate-it-or-love-it quality, it also sparks controersy (Smith). Psychologically, orange relieves feelings of self-pity, lack of self worth, and unwillingness to forgive. It can also open emotions, increase energy, and pull down serve as a perceptual antidepressant (Think Quest).Due to its association with arrogance, danger, and over-emotion, a survey proves that orange has been labeled as Americas least Favorite Color (Laurie Pawlik-Kienlen The Subconscious Psychology of Color). People who prefer the color orange are often flamboyant, fun-loving, and enjoy living a social life. They can be somewhat histrionic and fickle, but are generally good-natured, agreeable, and popular (Bond). discolour is an uplifting color that is most associated with opti mism, intellectuality, enlightenment, happiness, and signs of a bright future.Yellow can increase alertness and decisiveness, encourage communication, and stimulate the muscles and lymph system. Yellow can also activate the brain, spark clear, creative and intelligent thoughts, encourage memory, and stimulate genial processes (Smith). In a psychological sense, yellow brings feelings of happiness and increases perceptiveness, self-confidence, and optimism. It aids in discernment, good judgment, organization, and understanding (Think Quest). However, a dull yellow can bring feelings of fear. Those who favor yellow generally tend to be adventurous, shrewd, and carry a strong sense of humor.They can often shun responsibility due to their freedom-loving personalities, but are usually clear and precise thinkers who have a good outlook on life (Bond). As one of the three color channels, green occupies more space in the spectrum visible to the human eye than most colors. Green represents na ture, health, abundance, wealth, good luck, growth, peace, and clarity. Green can answer acquire physical equilibrium and relaxation, and has been shown to be beneficial to the heart. It also relaxes muscles and induces slower, deeper breathing (Smith).Psychologically, green has a tranquilizing and balancing effect. It brings about comfort, laziness, relaxation, and harmony. It can also alleviate nervousness and anxiety, and offer a sense of re impertinental and self-control (Think Quest). Surveys show that Green is Americas second favorite color (Pawlik-Kienlen). It usually a color liked by those who are gentle, sincere, and reputable. However, their tendency to be too modest and patient can lead to their exploitation. They are generally community-minded wad who prefer peace at any scathe (Bond). gloomful is the last of the three color channels.It is closely associated with spirituality, melancholy, cleanliness, wisdom, sadness, trustworthiness, and commitment (Nicholson). Bein g at far ends of the color spectrum, the color blue has almost entirely antagonist effects of the color red. Blue decreases appetite, breathing, heart rate and blood pressure. It also regulates sleep patterns, keeps bone marrow healthy, and stimulates the pituitary and thyroid glands and causes the production of calming chemicals. Blue brings feelings of calmness and relaxation. It can also eliminate insomnia, aid intuition, and increase mental clarity and control (Smith).However, an excessive amount of blue can be dispirit and saddening (ThinkQuest). Surveys prove that the color blue, universe the least gender specific, is labeled as Americas Favorite Color (Pawlik-Kienlen). People whose favorite color is blue are typically preserving, sensitive, and self-controlled. Even though they can be worriers who are often cautious, they are faithful and have steady character (Bond). Purple is the august color of mystery, creativity, unrest, and royalty (Nicholson). Being the mixture of red and blue, the effects of the color purple contain elements from those of both red and blue.Physiologically, purple can alleviate skin conditions suppress hunger, balance metabolism, and calm the mind and nerves. It can also be perceived as an antiseptic and a narcotic (Smith). Psychologically, purple increases creativity, intuition, imagination, and sensitivity to beauty, high ideals, spirituality, and compassion. It can balance the mind, cleanse emotional disturbances, and combat states of shock and fear (Think Quest). Purple is the favorite color of adolescent girls. Those who prefer purple over all the other colors tend to be artistic, individualistic, fastidious, and witty.They can become aloof and sarcastic when misunderstood, but are generally unconventional, tolerant, and dignified (Bond). Pink is associated with youth, romance, free spirit, lightheartedness, love (Nicholson). Being a lighter tint of red, many aspects of red are evident in the color pink. Pink can stimul ate energy and help muscles relax. Like red, it also increases blood pressure, respiration, heartbeat, and pulse rate. Pink offers feelings of calmness, protection, and a sense of nurture. It encourages action, shortens erratic behavior, and sparks a desire to be carefree (Smith).Embodying the gentler qualities of red, pink represents unaggressive sensuality and unselfish love. People whose favorite color is pink are often charming, maternal, and gentle. However, they tend to desire a sheltered life and require affection, perhaps missing to appear delicate and fragile (Bond). Brown is an organic color that represents reliability, approachability, the natural world, and connections with the Earth (Nicholson). It provides a sense of orderliness, security, stability, and wholesomeness. It also conveys withholding emotion and feelings of retreating from the world (Smith).Those who like the color brown are generally steady, conservative, conscientious, and dependable. They may be tactl ess and inflexible, but they are responsible and kind (Bond). Black, white, and gray are not considered colors, but are shades. Although they elicit no physiological effects, they still bring about psychological changes. Black represents authority, power, emptiness, sophistication, silence, and death (Nicholson). It evokes strong emotions and sense of potential and possibility. Black produces feelings of passiveness, emptiness, and being inconspicuous (Smith).Those who like black want to give a mysterious appearance, which indicates a suggestion of hidden depths and inner longings (Bond). White represents purity, neutrality, and safety (Nicholson). It aids mental clarity, encourages the elimination of clutter, purifies thoughts and actions, enables fresh beginnings, and offers a feeling of freedom and openness (Smith). However, an overabundance of white can bring feelings of separation, coldness, and isolation. People who like white indicate a desire for perfection, simplicity, and a recapture of lost youth and freshness (Bond). Gray is the shade in-between black and white.It is associated with dignity, conservativeness, control, independence, and authority (Nicholson). Gray increases independence, self-reliance, evasion, non-commitment, and lack of involvement (Smith). It is unsettling and creates a sense of high expectations, separation, and loneliness. Those who like gray are hard-working and often search for composure and a steady life with few ups and downs (Bond). The effects and associations of a color vary from person to person subjectively. Changes in the general effect of a color depend on some ones personality, experiences, culture, and memories.Through a subjective perspective of color, a negative association with a color could cause undesirable effects and stir distaste towards that color. For example, if you receive a grievous letter sealed in a green envelope, green may now be your least favorite color due to a new subconscious association with heartbreak and sorrow. In Elliot and Niestas study on the relationship between attraction and the color red, they also concluded that Although red enhances verificatory feelings in this study, earlier research suggests the meaning of a color depends on its context.For example, Elliot and others have shown that seeing red in competition situations, such as write examinations or sporting events, leads to worse performance (Science Daily). In a study conducted by UC Berkley, researchers found that peoples color preferences were linked to their experiences. To conduct their studies, the researchers had quaternary different groups perform four different tasks rating their color preferences, recording the objects they associated with each color, rating how they felt about each object or twinned an object to a color (Rachel Banning-Lover Study Links Color Preference to Experiences).They found that color preference was highly shaped by experience. For example, one subject stated that their favorite color was pink, and then later admitted to having fond memories in her sisters pink bedroom, which would produce a positive association with the color pink. The researchers also discovered a link between school spirit and color preferences. Those who attended Berkley generally preferred their own school colors, blue and gold, over red, Stanfords school color. There has also been cross-cultural evidence that creates varying effects of color.Cross-cultural differences can occur in two ways different cultures may have different objects that influence individuals perceptions of certain colors, or two cultures may have the same object but may associate different feelings with that object (Banning-Lover). For example, somebody from France may feel energized around navy bluealthough blues are typically calmingdue to the widespread use of the color in their country. Personality is a big, if not the biggest, impact on somebodys preference and perception of a color.In general, extroverts or those with energetic personalities are drawn to richer, warmer colors, while introverts or those with relaxed personalities prefer cooler, more subtle colors (Bond). Colors that are found in certain areas of our everyday lives have a reason for being there. Understanding the objective effects of colors, many places have used certain colors to subconsciously manipulate the public into feeling or acting a desirable way, most of the time without them even realizing it.Red is commonly used in restaurants, both fast food and sit-downs, due to its ability to increase the appetites of its customers and therefore increasing their likelihood of buying more food. Orange is the color of most traffic cones and construction signs. Used to grab drivers attention, orange increases their awareness to prevent accidents. Green lights are often used in forensics due to its ability to incite a confession from criminals more than any other color of light. With its strong connection with t he Earth, green is also used to promote environmentalism.Blue is commonly used in hospitals to calm patients. Research also shows that people are more productive in blue rooms, for example, weightlifters are able to lift heavier weights in blue gyms (David Johnson Color Psychology). Pink is proven to reduce erratic behavior, and is therefore used in many prison holding cells (Think Quest). Due to its ability to tranquilize, sports team ups sometimes paint the locker room of the opposing team pinks so their opponents will lose energy. White symbolizes neutrality and is used for truce flags. It is also worn by doctors and nurses to imply sterility (Johnson).The roots of studying the effects of color can be traced back to ancient cultures, such as the Chinese and Egyptians. They practiced chromotherapy, or using colors to heal. For example, blue was believed to soothe disorder and treat pain, while yellow was thought to stimulate the body (Cherry). Just like color psychology receive d much skepticism in ancient times it still receives much skepticism today. No matter how unaware we are of the physiological and psychological effects of color, there is no doubt that color has a huge impact on our lives, playing a role in moods, decisions, sensations, and much more.

Belonging Essay Example for Free

Belonging EssayAccording to Maslows hierarchy of human needs, love and belong is what drives human existence. We search for a sensory faculty of belong every day of our lives, not realising that it is our perceptions and attitudes towards belonging that determine the fulfilment we experience. We finish choose how we belong and the level of fulfilment we experience by changing our perceptions and attitude.This concept is expressed through the poetry of Peter Skrzyneckis Immigrant Chronicle, Marc Fosters film Finding Neverland and Nam Les piddling story Love and Honour and Pride and sorrow and Compassion and Sacrifice. Skrzynecki communicates the way that his perceptions and attitudes towards belonging affected his ability to shade fulfilled and content from a pagan perspective through his poetic anthology Immigrant Chronicle. In Feliks Skrzynecki the poet describes the admiration he has for his mother and the way that he can remain connected to Poland in his sound judgmen t whilst living in radical country. Skrzynecki enforces the word gentle to define his father, demonstrating the level of respect he has for him.He references the saying keeping up with the Joneses in the breed Kept pace only with the Joneses/ Of his own minds making to communicate that his father is able to feel content and fulfilled by choosing to stay connected with Poland, further only in his mind can he do so because they now live so far away. Skrzynecki doesnt understand how his father can choose to belong, demonstrating his confusion by saying that his father is happy as I impart never been. We begin to understand that Skrzyneckis attitude towards belonging to his Polish heritage reflects his feelings of disconnection in the poesy Ancestors.The ancestry where sand and grasses never stir is a metaphor used to represent the stagnation of Skrzyneckis connection with his Polish heritage. He is plagued with guilt and frustration as a result of his disconnection and this is demonstrated through the accusatory nature of the figures in his dream. The use of alliteration communicates Skrzyneckis threat Standing shoulder to shoulder. Skrzynecki does not realise that it is his own perceptions and attitudes that prevent him from belonging to hisPolish ancestors, and this is reflected in his use of rhetorical questions throughout the poem how long is their wait to be? Skrzyneckis attitudes towards belonging begin to change in the poem 10 Mary Street and a greater sniff out of fulfilment is communicated. Skrzynecki references his own poem Feliks Skrzynecki in the line tended roses and camellias/ like adopted children. This demonstrates that Skrzyneckis perception of his fathers sense of belonging to his garden had changed. In Feliks Skrzynecki Skrzynecki felt excluded because his father loved his garden like an only child.In 10 Mary Street he realises that the sense of belonging he sh bes with his father is greater than the connection his father has with th e garden and that to him it is just like an adopted child. This change in attitude leads to the last poem of the anthology Post Card in which Skrzynecki comes to the realisation that he has the ability to choose where and how he belongs. He writes of a post card that has been sent to him by a friend visiting Warsaw, the townspeople in Poland where he and his parents once lived.Skrzynecki gives a description of the post card that is plainly devoid of emotion until the last line The skys the brightest shade. This line is positively connoted and reflects Skrzyneckis realisation that he has the ability to connect with Warsaw. Skrzynecki directly addresses the town by stating I never knew you. This personifies the town and further demonstrates the poets growing connection. Skrzynecki uses the qualifier for the moment to undercut the line I never knew you which is repeated in the fourth stanza.This demonstrates that Skrzynecki recognises that he doesnt feel a sense of belonging to his P olish heritage, but that he is willing to explore it. He once again addresses the town with a rhetorical question in the fourth stanza Whats my prime(a) to be? This directly communicates that Skrzynecki understands that he has a choice about connecting to his Polish heritage and belonging, whilst overly conveying his sense of indecision. passim the entire anthology Skrzynecki communicates his feelings of disconnection from both Australian and Polish cultures.Post Card is Skrzyneckis resolution as he is content with acknowledging that he doesnt have to belong, and at the akin time recognising that he doesnt have to feel excluded from his Polish culture either. He uses the last lines of the poem to communicate that he does feel some sense of belonging to Warsaw, through personifying the town as speaking to him On a rivers bank/ A lone tree whispers/ We will get hold of before you die. This externalises Skrzyneckis new perceptions and attitude towards belonging and his acknowled gement that he will visit Poland one day and then make the choice as to whether or not he belongs to it.Marc Fosters Finding Neverland alludes to the perception that a place where we belong can be created, through imagination as well as relationships. The protagonist James Barrie James Barrie is the protagonist in Finding Neverland and uses his imagination to create a place where he can enshroud from the unhappy reality of his failing fits and marriage, a place where he belongs. Foster demonstrates Barries sense of not belonging at the beginning of the movie, when we see the dramatist peeping through the stage curtains at the audience in the theatre.This shows us that Barrie is anxious, an emotion that is juxtaposed with those of the laughing, relaxed theatregoers. His anxiety and inner turmoil is further demonstrated when a berth of view camera shot shows us that Barrie is imagining a rain storm with a colour pallet of dark blues and blacks within the theatre. The repeated ensu re of a door is used to demonstrate the disconnection between Barrie and his wife. For example, when Barrie asks Mary if she would like to join him on a walk to the park she declines via a ejaculate through a closed door.During another scene Mary and Barrie are left bickering, and are again disconnected by doors when the couple retire to their infract bedrooms. The doorway into which Mary retreats is dark and presents a sense of gloom for the woman, but Barries doorway reveals brightly coloured parkland. This is where we are introduced to the concept of the imaginary Neverland and the function it has in allowing Barrie to choose to exist in a world where he belongs. When Barrie meets the Davies family his perceptions and attitudes towards belonging begin to change.The strong relationship he is forming with the four young boys and their overprotect is represented through the shared experience of imaginary worlds. The scenes swap back and forth between the Davies back yard and an old western tavern where the boys play a game of Cowboys and Indians. Likewise, a setting of a quiet, countryside pine forest becomes an Amazonian jungle in which the Davies family are pirates awaiting to be appointed to the crew of Captain Barrie. The modify is fast paced to show that the sense of belonging that Barrie and the Davies are developing through their relationships with one another is becoming stronger.Barrie comes to the realisation that he can belong exterior of his imaginary world. Foster uses close up shots that are shared between him and the Davies boys, which communicate the strong bonds of love and friendship that they have with each other whilst also demonstrating Barries new perceptions of belonging. Barrie has a choice as to whether he belongs in reality or in Neverland. Nam Les Love and Honour and Pity and Pride and Compassion and Sacrifice also demonstrates that perceptions and attitudes determine an individuals ability to belong, through the relationship b etween a young writer suitably named Nam and his father.In the title of his short story, Le references William Faulkner and the verities that define human interaction. The words become Nams influence in adapting his perceptions and attitudes towards belonging throughout the story. Nam struggles over whether he should use his fathers account of surviving the My Lai massacre as a fourteen year old boy and later Vietnamese prison camps after the fall of Saigon for a writing assignment.A strong sense of disconnection is evident between Nam and his father, demonstrated through the use of short, blunt sentences and pronouns that snap off the two characters identities from each other He loved speaking in Vietnamese proverbs. I had long since learned to ignore it. Nam is influenced by his mentors who tell him that cultural literature is hot, but he questions whether Faulkners verities would apply to any ethnic literature that he could write when he doesnt feel a sense of belonging to h is Vietnamese heritage.Nam feels pressured to get his story done, and the only thing breaking him free of his writers block is his fathers past times F**k it, I thought. I had two and a half days left. I would write the ethnic story of my Vietnamese father. Personal pronouns are used in this example to communicate that Nam is writing the story for his own gain, and not his fathers because there is no sense of belonging in their relationship. The use of profanity suggests that there is internal conflict within Nam and guilt over not feeling a true sense of belonging with his father and Vietnamese history.Nams attitude towards feeling a sense of belonging to his fathers story changes when a friend tells him that the reason he see his writing is because he doesnt exploit the Vietnamese thing. He feels a sense of shame for taking his fathers history so quietly We were locked in all the intricate ways of guilt. This is where Nam comes to realise that even though his heritage is rich with the verities that Faulkner talked about, he cannot write truthfully without feeling a sense of belonging to his Vietnamese culture or his father.Nam chooses to reach out to his father in attempt to understand and develop a sense of belonging to what he had written about. He uses his new perspective about his father and his fathers past to rewrite the story, and the pronouns me and he are used in the same sentences now, to show the sons connection to his father He would see how powerful was his experience, how valuable his suffering how I had made it speak for more than itself. He would be pleased with me. Nam has chosen to change his attitude towards the relationship he has with his father and as a result can belong through his new understanding.All three texts communicate how changes in perspectives and attitudes towards belonging determine the level of fulfilment we can experience. Through these texts we can perceive that belonging is a choice and that our perceptions and attitudes towards belonging determine how fulfilling our lives are. If we can control our perceptions and attitudes towards belonging, we can effectively control how we belong, and as a result develop a higher understanding and sense of our own identities.

Cultural Influences on Accounting and Its Practices

Cultural work ons on history and Its Practices1. IntroductionRecent research in comparative score has led to a number of interesting theories and models that have attempted to analyse the causal factors behind the evolution of dissimilar accounting and financial systems in different countries. These diverse slipway of accounting are in the process of being harmonised beca single-valued function of global demarcation imperatives, and international accounting bodies are trying to bring about carrefour between the accounting systems of different countries.1 The work of Geert Hofstede2 on ethnical effects on accounting development, expanded and elaborated by Gray3 later in his possibleness of cultural relevance in the formation of accounting systems is one of the more discussed models of comparative accounting.It is the drive of this assignment to elaborate on this model and use it to analyse the differences in the development of accounting in china and Japan in the late ninet eenth century.2. The Hofstede-Gray FrameworkThe roomy framework for this model was created by Hofstede, further later adapted by Gray to explain the influence of glossiness on accounting systems. While, the normal practice is to treat these two models separately, a adjunction reference makes it much simpler to explain and use. The Hofstede-Gray model fist lays down the argument and then goes on to elaborate the various premises that support the theory. It is essentially deductive in nature and logical in its approach.Hofstede, in 1980, real a model of culture that distinguishes members of one human group from another and stated that culture manifests it self at four levels, symbols, heroes, rituals and value, all of which work towards accounting systems to vary along national cultural lines4 His theory was further modified during the next ten years. In1984 he expounded the four very interesting proportionalitys of culture, which vary from one group to another and consist of I ndividualism V Collectivism, Large V Small place Distance, well V Weak Power Avoidance and Masculinity V Femininity. These, he said are the most common societal preferences that distinguish one golf-club from another.Societies which prefer individualism consist of people who live in small units and prefer to look after their very own, whereas collectivism represents a social social system where relationships are interlinked and people expect their larger extended clan of relatives to look after them in exchange of loyalty. Power distance represents the extent to which its members accept the contrast in distribution of supply. Large power distance societies are thus essentially unquestioningly hierarchical in nature. Uncertainty avoidance represents the degree to which members of inn are ready to accept uncertainty and vagueness. The lesser the acceptance of uncertainty the stronger is the rigidity of thought and belief in a particular society and its foeman to change. Mascu linity, in a society, stands for its dominant preference for achievement, heroism and similar symbols while femininity is associated with qualities like compassion, care for the weak and quality of life. In 1991,5 Hofstede added another dimension that dealt with Short Term V Long Term Orientation. Short term orientation stood for values like speedy achievement of social status, overspending and a appertain for quick results whereas long term orientation looked at gradual achievement of results, a thrifty approach towards savings and an adaptation of tradition to meet smart- do needs.In 1998, Gray took up Hofstedes cultural hypotheses and linked them to the development of accounting systems in a meaningful way, stating that cultural or societal values permeated through organisational and occupational subcultures, and vice versa, though obviously the degree of integration differed from place to place. Accounting systems and practices can influence and reinforce societal values.6 Th ese base premises were succeeded by the formulation of four hypotheses on the relationship between specifically identified cultural characteristics and the development of accounting systems.a) Professionalism versus statutory control This cultural value denotes an inclination for the exercise of individual professional judgment and self-regulation as opposed to observance of authoritarian lawful needs and legislative writ. As such, the high(prenominal) a country ranks in terms of individualism and the lower it ranks in terms of uncertainty avoidance and power distance, the more likely it is to rank super in terms of professionalism.b) Uniformity versus flexibility This reflects a preference for the enforcement of standardized accounting practices between firms, and for the unswerving use of such practices, vis a vis flexibility in accordance with the perceived circumstances of individual companies, e.g., the higher a country ranks in terms of uncertainty avoidance and power dista nce and the lower it ranks in terms of individualism, the more likely it is to rank highly in terms of uniformity. c) Conservatism versus optimism This value results in an inclination for cautiousness in measurement that enables systems to breed the ambiguity of future events, as opposed to a positive, risk-taking approach, thus implying that the higher a country ranks in terms of uncertainty avoidance, the more likely it is to be conservative and resistant to change. d)Secrecy versus transparency This premise states that an inclination for confidentiality and revelation of information about taskes only to those who are closely concerned with its administration and financing, is linked to higher societal preferences for uncertainty avoidance, power distance and masculinity,The Hofstede-Gray model stands out among various models of comparative accounting for its comprehensiveness in linking culture with the development of various frugal tools like accounting systems.3. The Develop ment of Accounting Systems in china and Japan in the Nineteenth CenturyGlobal accounting systems, including the various country GAAPs and the IFRS, is contemptible towards convergence of accounting systems spurred by the requirements of all transnational players to present one set of financial statements and eliminate multiple reconciliations. Even China, with the introduction of the Chinese Accounting Standards (CAS) is putting its state controlled accounting practices aside and moving towards the IFRS. This assignment deals with a similar historical situation in the nineteenth century when aggressive westbound businesses had begun to dominate eastern trade and commerce and westbound accounting systems were establishing their predominance in vastly different business cultures.At this time both China and Japan had accounting systems that had developed through centuries and served the purposes of businesses in both countries. In China a primitive method of double entering existe d, which permitted the extraction of tribulation balances and the determination of profit on a cash basis. The country had developed a four-leg accounting system that allowed for the recording of cash and non cash transactions in journals and subsequent posting in ledgers, using double-entry techniques. Despite their availability, these systems were used mainly by banks and large state enterprises. The bulk of businesses continued to use single entry recording techniques and did not provide for differentiation of private and business accounts. Even though the systems were adequate for the running of normal business operations, the needs changed with the upshot of business enterprises from the west and the establishment of joint stock enterprises for coal mining and iron manufacture. The structure of the new business enterprises required the computation of profit and loss for the purpose of dividends, and asset and depreciation accounting. The autochthonal book keeping systems pro ved to be deficient because of existing practices that depended on trust, the absence of formal source documents, unnumbered books, overlook of cross referencing and sequence, lack of differentiation between capital and revenue expenditure and relative unimportance of profit determination. In view of their weaknesses, the indigenous bookkeeping systems were of restrain use as a basis for internal control. 7The development of accounting in neighbouring Japan, had also developed significantly, though on dissimilar lines. While accountants did use a system of double entry in some of the bigger businesses, there was no uniform method of accounting and separate bookkeeping methods were developed and kept secret by independent economic powers, such as the Tomiyama, the Tanabes, the Nakais, the Hyogos, the Kondohs, the Honmas, the Hasegawas, the Ishimotos, the Onos, the Kohnoikes, and the Mitsuis. Methods used thus ranged from the primitive to those that were reasonably adequate.Although the double-entry concept was applied, most Japanese merchants honorable single-entry bookkeeping, called the daifukucho There was no systematic classification of accounts, nor any distinction between capital and revenue expenditures, and the cash basis of accounting was adopted. As in China, the indigenous accounting systems were adequate in a feudal economy where production and distribution were on a small exfoliation Nishikawa, 1956 Someya, 1989. 8The accounting systems of the two countries towards the sum and latter part of the nineteenth century, though developing independently, thus had many things in common. These deficiencies made them inadequate for the purposes of larger joint stock business corporations, brought in by the proliferation of British imperialism in Asia and the commencement of business with the United States.In subsequent years, the responses of China and Japan to these challenges were vastly different. The Chinese businesses steadfastly refused to adopt w estern accounting technologies and the majority remained with the single entry, four pillar balancing method until the twentieth century even in companies that made use of large scale western machinery. This led to numerous difficulties and the emergence of widespread defalcation because of lack of control, and also unfortunately to the gradual takeover of businesses by western companies, because of lack of control. non surprisingly, from 1884, the opportunity to gain mercantile support for private investment in kuantu shangpan joint-stock enterprises vanished Chan, 1996 9In Japan, the response was enormously different. Japanese students travelled in large rime to the west to to imbibe science, technology and entrepreneurial skills. Accounting modernisation occurred rapidly and western-style double-entry bookkeeping was introduced as the foundation on which a capitalist economy could develop.10 A number of western accounting books, adequately translated, found their way into japan ese markets and nationalised Banks adopted British balance sheets. Legislation was introduced for businesses to adhere to standardized accounting systems and a number of accounting schools started providing qualified accountants to service businesses.The large scale adoption of western accounting by Japan and its rejection by the Chinese has exercised the curiosity of business historians for many years. The answers are now coming through and are related mostly to differences in culture, as put forward by the Hofstede-Gray model. In China policy-making power was centralised, the society was resistant to change, learning was narrow and restricted to Confucianism, and society was in a state of bureaucratic feudalism. The economy was self sufficient and isolationist. In Japan, however, political power was dispersed the society was open to change and very much dependent on irrelevant trade. Learning was broad based and the culture pro-merchant. While the continuous political conflict i n Japan kept it perpetually unstable it also reduced intolerance and made it much more open to accepting western techniques in accounting. The reasons for the Japanese adoption and Chinese rejection of western accounting principles were largely cultural and social. While, they contributed largely to the devolve of foreign capital and formation of much larger companies in Japan, they also inversely led to the gradual impoverishment of the Chinese economy and the emergence of the communist regime.4. The Relevance of the Hofstede-Gray Model to the Chinese and Japanese Accounting SystemsThe Hofstede-Gray model of the influence of culture on the development of accounting systems appears to be perfectly valid in evaluating the diverging behaviour of two different cultures to the same stimuli. Social and cultural patterns in China led to very high levels of Uncertainty Avoidance and Power Distance. The central government had far reaching powers and control. The main activity was agricult ure and the primary source of revenue came from land. The scholar bureaucrats were inward looking and not automatic to progress beyond Confucian tenets. Bureaucracy was all pervasive and stability in society was maintained despite intermittent conflict. The whole system thus revolved around age old customs and levels of uncertainty avoidance were extremely high. Similarly the land based feudal bureaucracy ensured large levels of power distance and these two factors, along with the isolationist, closed door approach of centuries led to inflexibility, conservatism and secrecy and the consequent non-adoption, if not downright rejection of modern western accounting principles.Japan, on the other hand, though not far away from China, had a very different social and cultural milieu. There were a number of economically and politically powerful landowners and these, along with the priesthood that controlled independent Buddhist shrines, were able to successfully disperse political power. T he country, unlike China was largely dependent on foreign trade, which resulted in an intellectual open door policy and flexibility towards the requirements of trading partners. The country thus had very low levels of uncertainty avoidance and the dispersion of political power had made people more independent and thereby reduced the power distance. All these factors led to high levels of flexibility, forward thinking optimism and openness to new ideas, as required by the Hofstede-Gray framework, making it much easier to adapt to western accounting systems when the situation demanded.5. ConclusionResearch into comparative accounting is a late(a) phenomenon and still under great discussion and debate. In fact, Grays framework is less than a decade old and has been questioned at length by other experts, with people arguing that the conclusions are subjective and capable of different interpretations. The fact remains that accounting systems have grown in divergent ways between countries that, though physically proximal, are culturally quite divergent. Another major example is that of the UK and The Netherlands, where, despite similar trading, commercial and expansionist practices, accounting systems grew differently, and remained so, until the emergence of the EU and globalisation initiated moves for convergence.The Hofstede-Gray theory thus does appear to give some of the answers to the enigma concerning the adoption of different accounting, financial and even auditing systems between countries which have divergent social and cultural norms.BibliographyDoupnik, T.S., Tsakumis, G .T., and George,t, 2004, A critical review of Grays possibleness of Cultural Relevance and Suggestions for future research, Retrieved November 18, 2006 from findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3706/is_200401/ai_n13602153/pgDr. Geert Hofstede, 2006, The International rail line center, Retrieved November 18, 2006 from geert-hofstede.international-business-center.com/index.shtmlGray, S. J. (1 988) Towards a Theory of Cultural on the Development of Accounting Influence Systems Internationally. Abacus, Vol. 24 Issue 1, p1-15 March 1988Environmental Influence on Accounting Development, 2001, Retrieved November 18, 2006 from https//ep.eur.nl/bitstream/1765/1888/5/Chapter+2.doc.The need for International Accounting Standards, 2000, International Accounting, Retreieved November 18, 2006 from http//wwwfp.mccneb.edu/intercultural/Documents/2003/InternationalAccounting.doc.Nobes, C., 1998, Towards a general model of the reasons for international differences in financial reporting Abacus Volume 34 21Footnotes1 The need for International Accounting Standards, 2000, International Accounting2 Dr. Geert Hofstede, 2006, The International Business center3 Doupnik, T.S., Tsakumis, G .T., and George,t, 2004, A critical review of Grays Theory of Cultural Relevance and Suggestions for future research4 Doupnik, T.S., Tsakumis, G .T., and George,t, 20045 Environmental Influence on Accounting Development, 20016 Environmental Influence on Accounting Development, 20017 Environmental Influence on Accounting Development, 20018 Doupnik, T.S., Tsakumis, G .T., and George,t, 20049 Doupnik, T.S., Tsakumis, G .T., and George,t, 200410 Doupnik, T.S., Tsakumis, G .T., and George,t, 2004

Good And Effective Leadership Manifestation

rock-steady And Effective leadhip verbal expressionINTRODUCTIONLeadership is exhibited in almost completely stages of support. E genuinely consistency in peerless stage of his or her life has been faced with stances where drawship skills had to be demonstrated. Right from individual families and homes to organisations, institutions and g all overnmental bodies, leading skills ar very much demonstrated. Irrespective of whether angiotensin-converting enzyme possesses substantial leadership traits or non, there is an inherent need to succeed in a given task. Good leadership is not ground on just leading cracking deal still it similarly comes along with assorted responsibilities and ground on how its handled, justifies one as cosmos either a dear leader or a bad leader. Effective leadership skills stern never be practiced with surface followers they ar the people who atomic number 18 led to either a success or failure in a officeicular go steady. Attitudes o f followers be greatly subjected to leadership traits displayed by the leaders and this is backed by the argumentation made by Hackman and Johnson (2004) that followers prosper low useful leaders and suffers under useless leaders. (Hackman Johnson, 2000)2.0. CASE composition 12.1. Case SummaryJoey was previously involved in melodic phrase and believes that, his narration is in a similar fashion to what data track aims to achieve by separate equipping us for the life of engineers in our chosen industries. Evidence of this has been during the 10th week of stemma when we discussed CRM (Crew Resource Management). Even though he was not personally involved in this scenario, he believes its an excellent military post to analyse. His case is a real example of how leadership/team employ manifestation by the pilots, cabin cabal and air traffic controllers and use of teamwork to execute a safe let oncome for all headacheed when a US Airbus A320 in course had issues with both of its engines in January last year. As the routine dodging was climbing out of the New York area, one by one a flock of birds flew into the passageway of the aircraft and stopped both the jet engines on the aircraft. The captain (the leader of the aircraft) calmly analysed the topographic point and he knew that he only had a short time to imply a concrete finis. The initial decision perplexn by the leader was to go back to the airport they came from to seek and land there with no engines at all, upon a conversation with his co-pilot (subordinate) it was decided that this would be a very un worryly outcome for success. A pass on discussion with his other worker gave the suggestion of the hap of landing in a sighted river close to their spot.2.2 Leadership manifestationThe leadership skill in this circumstance was demonstrated considering the amount of pres certain(a) that the crews were under when the crisis started. On January 15, 2009, US Airways Flight 1549 took off fr om New Yorks LaGuardia airport for Charlotte, North Carolina. Shortly after takeoff, the plane went through a flock of geese at 3,000 feet and both engines were knocked out. Captain Chesley Sully Sullenberger later said that he felt an adrenaline rush right to his core. As his heart rate increased, he forced himself to neglect the physical symptoms and face the situation. (Cross, 2009) This situation was swell up handled by the crew following these 6 steps that they received during training to try and resolve a crisis. stair 1 The better(p) defense is a good offence (Cross, 2009) Establish training exercises for the possible crisis, US airways had done this with the crew and so they would have been well prepared for the crisis. The commanding pilot was also a very knowledgeable person on crisis management and knew how to formulate a backup plan in stressful situations as evidence by this statement from him in a post mishap interview One way of looking at this force be that, for 42 years, Ive been make small regular deposits in this bank of experience education and training, said US Airways Capt. Chesley Sully Sullenberger. And on January 15, the balance was equal so that I could make a very large withdrawal. (Couric K 2009)Step 2 Tell me now (Cross, 2009) Communicate to known comp either a protocol that is what the cockpit crew did when they had the failure. Even though the emergency happened at a low altitude they still had to rigidly follow companys procedures to try and evaluation the aircraft systems and the situation itselfStep 3 Rally the team (Cross, 2009) Communicate with the other team members on both the better(p) and worst possible outcomes for the situation. The US air 1549 charge crew discussed all possible alternatives in the approach they would take to try and solve the paradoxStep 4 Isolate and contain the problem (Cross, 2009) at once the crew identified their plan of attack, they isolated the problem by using the best known knowled ge at the time and went through checklists to try and lighten the situation and start the engines so they might be able to get out of the situation. US Airways also focused on the ABCs Assess what the situation is and/or threats are, Balance available barriers using policies, procedures and flows, checklists, automation, external resources, homo factors, and knowledge of aircraft handling, Communicate effectively and understand callouts, and Standard operating procedures. (Sullenberger C, 2009)Step 5 erect it (Cross, 2009) After the calamity, the industry and airlines are trying to remedy the situation of bird strikes for the future and also better crew training for water ditchingStep 6 Train all team members (Cross, 2009) Remedial action after the accident and the subsequent findings have suggested better precautions and training to try and prevent an occurrence like this happening again.Comparing of the learnt theories to the case study 1The theories learnt in this course are very relevant to this accident. High guess industries have been littered with tragedies from curt management systems in the past. A good starter for this is the review of CRM from lecture 10 in our course it states that CRM is a system to achieve safe and cost-effective flight operations by optimizing the use of all available resources such as equipments, procedures and people. CRM training focuses on mastering knowledge, skills and attitudes related to communications, situational awareness, problem firmness of purpose, decision making, and teamwork (Ljubo V. and Sutherland B, 2010). The paragraphs below outline how the CRM was successfully implemented in the accident2.3.1 Leadership The captain of the aircraft displayed great composure and guidance during the crisis, he used his previous training to countermand the situation from becoming worse. A classic example of great leadership manifestation was when the aircraft was on the water, he checked inside the aircraft to see i f there were any stranded people left on the aircraft after every one had left before he left the aircraft. He also directed the pull through crews to approach and rescue people on the wings first before the people on the life rafts. The third positive leadership trait displayed by the co-pilot was when he went back into the sinking aircraft and located more life jackets for the passengers who had none.2.3.2 Interpersonal communication This can be broken down further for this section to let in Communication errors, barriers, cultural influences, listening, coordination (Ljubo V. and Sutherland B, 2010). The above mentioned traits were performed to a high standard in each area this in my opinion was the reason why the outcome of the flight was so successful.2.3.3 Decision-making This area of the accident can be further examined with the following factors Risk assessment, risk management techniques, loss of judgement, deviations (Ljubo V. and Sutherland B, 2010) The aircraft crew did an excellent job in these areas, for example in the risk of assessment the crew were thinking about what was going to be the least risk, landing in the river or the airport they came from? Which ties into risk management they have made a decision so now they must manage the risk of this decision with the appropriate tools to make the outcome successful.Lessons learnt from the courseWe have learnt that the crew in what could be described as an almost hopeless situation pulled off a miracle to save the crippled aircraft. Kellys Followership Model in CRM mentioned in the slides makes reference to the Exemplary Followers Assertive and not afraid to challenge inbred to safe efficient ops (Ljubo V. and Sutherland B, 2010), these are the techniques employed by the crew on the aircraft at all times to ensure a successful outcome to the situation. We have also learnt that a calm head and excellent teamwork are essential to closure any impending crisis. It was an integral part of this sc enario. We didnt have time to consult all the written guidance, we didnt have time to pure(a) the appropriate checklist, so Jeff Skiles and I had to work almost intuitively in a very close-knit fashion, without having a chance to verbalize every decision, every part of the situation. By observing each others actions and hearing our transmissions and our reports to others, we were able to quickly be on the same page, know what needed to be done and begin to do it. (Sullenberger C, 2009)The captain of the aircraft exhibited the big 5 important factors under the personality traits of leadership. The above qualities exhibited by the leader and complimented by the crews superb CRM was the major factor for the successful outcome. Lets further break these points down into a more detailed analysis of the situation2.4.1 Neuroticism (emotional stability) The captain of the flight had no time to channel his energies into anxiety he said he had to mentally control his emotions so he could use his thoughts to fly the plane instead2.4.2 Extraversion (sociability) Sullenberger used his teamwork skills to communicate the problem with his co-pilot as to what the best action would be to ensure a safe outcome for the flight2.4.3 receptiveness to experience (creative, curious) Sullenbergers past history as a aviation accident consultant, a glider pilot and a instructor in human dynamics in aviation all helped him to make the right decision needed for a safe outcome.2.3.4 Agreeableness (trusting nurturing) This was demonstrated by the fact he let his co-pilot run through the engine relight checklist so he could try and attempt to restore engine power, so in the worst case he would be able to fly the aircraft back to the airport on one engine if they got it restarted.2.3.5 Conscientiousness (organised dependable) He demonstrated this due to his past employment as a instructor pilot in US airways, which consisted of duties such as testing pilots skills in the simulator and in th e aircraft. He was also widely recognised by his peers as an excellent pilot and faithful servant of the aviation industry.Leaders are made, they are not born. They are made by hard effort, which is the price which all of us must pay to achieve any intention that is worthwhile. (Ljubo V. and Sutherland, 2010)The successful outcome was achieved by the actions of many. Lives were saved due to the experience of a well trained crew (Sullenberger C, 2009). The above two quotes sum up suddenly the Captain and crew of US air flight 1549 in a nutshell.Improvements to Case Study 1 based on learnt theoriesIn light of the accident on the Hudson River, the industry has learnt that they must keep up to date with aircrew training and cabin crew training and the training must be based on one of the most impressive training improvements, Recommendations for new engine hallmark procedures, emergency checklists, aircraft equipage and pilot training (Croft J 2010).From a leadership point of view th e US Government regulator for aviation (FAA) and Airbus, were each criticized for not mandating ditching training in the flight simulator, tougher engine bird strike certification, prudish pilot checklists. From a cabin crew point of view deficiencies existed in briefing of passengers and also lack of standardization of equipment in the US airways fleet (some aircraft had life rafts some did not) at the time FAA did not mandate use of life raft on non overwater flights.Apart from the Government leadership issues one of the positives from a leadership point of view was that, the captain turned on the mini jet engine so he could maintain control over the aircraft in the final minutes of the flight. However the negatives of the leadership where he failed to press the ditching button to close the valves so water would not flood the aircraft (but this is a limitation of the human mind in reaction to a rare and stressful situation).Another finding is the fact that, the industry was ill p repared to know how to ditch in water. From a communication and leadership point of view, the question asks What should be done differently as a result of this learning. In my research and opinion from this accident backed up with our theory from the course, they perform a magnificent job of handling the situation from a classic leadership and communication text guard point of view and could in the future be a excellent case to study for future generations of leaders in the World.3.0. CASE STUDY 23.1. Case summaryThe second case study is of Awais Safder who led his team to complete a task in limited time by convince the patience force to work over time during winter. This was very crucial for the reputation of the company he worked for since the knob requested the project be reinforced on a tighter time schedule. In order successfully meet the target he placed leadership responsibilities on his sub-ordinates. They did not have to complete it for themselves but for the sake of co mpany. Saving of time was of course saving of money. He did not just finish it on limited time but also saved on cost. Leaders are people who can create significant change in both followers and organisation which they are associated. (Iain Hay,2010)In a project, whoever is the leader must possess a number of characteristics to guarantee progress. To handle such pressure at an early stage of his career was mentally challenging. He was the sole structural web site engineer on the building site. He did not only show inspirational skills in propelling the labor force to achieve this task, but also exhibited excellent leadership.3.2. Leadership ManifestationThe leadership manifested in this case was transformational leadership. The leadership traits Awais adopted in that case was guidance on being analytical, devoted, diligent, interactional and sincere, factors that a successful leader must adapt to if he anticipates progressive results. Sometimes however, depending upon the diversit y of situations, there may be trade-on and trade-off characteristics in the need for each of the traits. He exhibited sound emotional stability in dealing with problems contemplatively towards the outcome of the project. Leadership skills perceived in solving the problems occurred during the execution of the task. He considered all ideas in addition to further improve his relationship with the followers and having sufficient skill to persuade followers even in case of disagreement. He made them realise that they had to complete this task for the sake of their companys reputation. He listened to their issues, noted their problems and promised them extra remuneration for their extended hours on the site. He also invited supervisors and foremen with whom he initially discussed the procedure of executing the activities and idea of extended hours at work for them. He then discussed the whole situation with send off Manager and explained to him how he was going to complete each activity and assured him of prompt progress on the project. He assured him that if these extra hours of construction were agreed upon, he would hash out with the steel fixers to help boost moral on the construction site.3.3. Comparing the learnt theories to the case studyThe under listed paragraphs gives a vivid voice on how Awais leadership approaches were analyzed based on the theories learnt in class3.3.1. Transformational Approach Standing on the statement made by Hackman and Johnsons, The new leader is one who commits people to action, who converts followers into leaders, and who may convert leaders into agents of change (Hackman Johnson, 2009). His leadership skills was highly portrayed on how he encourage his followers on the construction site to become leaders is a typical examples. A further example of this can be viewed from the following notes on transformational leadership. The transformational leadership characteristics from his case of study are as follows.3.3.1.1. Creative He exhibited creativity at different levels of the task. Since he was the sole engineer at the construction site, he had to come up with different alternatives to execute the given task at a specified time with the steel fixers especially during the winter when at night the temperature fell to -4 C.3.3.1.2. Interactive He took into account the fact that manpower plays a vital role in the progress of any task. In order to achieve the required closes from them, he was very concerned about their personal issues. He used to go on construction site, watched steel fixers, appreciated their hard work, stayed with them and made some jokes to make their work environment friendlier. Whenever I told them how the company had always taken care of them and provided them with many facilities in the past, they always gave a strong and positive response. To them, it was a give and take affair that is, once their basic needs are attended to, they on their part will do their best in achieving the c ompanys goal. This is also a classic example of how McGregors theory Y is put into play.3.3.1.3. Visionary He was issued with the task of completing the project in 13 days. However, he was required by the client to complete it in seven days. He knew this requirement would stretch his time management skills but he employed excellent delegation skills to make sure the project would be completed on time and almost 30% below budget cost. An example of this is a quote from Hackman and Johnson that A vision is a concise statement or description of the direction in which an individual, group, or organisation is headed (Hackman Johnson, 2009).3.3.1.4. Empowering During this process he felt it was necessary to give his subordinates the feeling of being on equal footing as himself. He thought that if he treated his workers on the same level as himself he would get a great return from the worker, they will be more motivated and the company would get a great return from the workers. This was e vident by the fact that the project was finished in seven days instead of the proposed 13 days. The comment by Hackman and Johnson enforces this great display of leadership, that is, Transformational Leaders know how to give power off and how to make others feel powerful (Hackman Johnson, 2009).3.3.1.5. Passionate He worked long hours for the completion of the task allocated to him and to excel his followers too. He believed that his display of immense love and offense towards his work was essential to serve as a motivational factor for his subordinates. This contributed a lot since it encouraged all the followers to put in a similar amount of passion or even more to achieve the set goals. He made funny jokes with his subordinates gave him the chance to get along with them. This in turn increased work production on site because he made his sub-ordinates felt valued. The statement below links him well with the passion divisor of transformational leadership. Transformational Leade rs love their jobs have a great deal of affection for their fellow-workers. (Hackman Johnson, 2009)3.4. Lessons learnt from the courseThe lesson learnt from the course further equipped him with better tools to manage a situation like this in a more comprehensive approach in the future. Looking at the course we can use many outstanding theories to better equip us for greater management skills in the future. A further examination of the strategies to his scenario on the construction site are done using Wallas four steps for creative problem solving3.4.1 Preparation In his scenario, he acknowledged the problem and tried to weight up the problems with the possible solvents. The best solution he came up with was able to satisfy both the management and employees.3.4.2 Incubation After reviewing the situation, his team sat down and deliberated on other alternative solutions to the problem at hand.3.4.3 Illumination After the two meeting with his followers, he made it a point to persona lly deliberate on the issue and the proposed solutions to see the peradventure of coming up with a whole different approach based on his knowledge and expertise in that particular issue.3.4.4 Verification He would go back to the original people he had a meeting with and discuss again the problems and solutions of the construction site and then finalise with his team on the best solution they should opt for.3.5. Improvements to Case Study 2 based on learnt theoriesFrom the study of this course, we realised that his leadership at the time was sufficient but he could personally improve on it now based on the theories hes learnt from the course. The productive engineer should possess abilities skillful enough to express, recognize problems and understand cultures and atmosphere. Leadership attributes can be further developed by more knowledge and experience. Based on the theories, characteristics of a good engineering leader must comprise of intuitiveness, inspiration, effective commun ication, individual prosperity and contemplation to function in multi cultural and multi disciplinary teamwork. By following these traits, we can portray our organisation as one with essential technical particulars and leadership dexterities. Even though the target of the project was met, they virtually worked under pressure which will results in the followers strength and capabilities being over stretched and in turn affected productivity. Working under pressure in that adverse weather conditions did not really portray good leadership concern and care for subordinates. Increasing the human resources so that work will be completed in due time with more hands would be a better option than to unnecessarily pressurise the workers with loads of remunerations. Casual workers can thus be hired if the companys resources were not enough to permanent employees.4.0. CASE STUDY 34.1. Case SummaryThe third case is a task of sensitising all employees of a mine to acquire ISO 14001 EMS Certificat ion. ISO 14001 Environmental Management brass is the outcome of a successful assessment of a company by an independent third party to ensure that works operations are carried out in an environmentally friendly manner such that there is a minimum tint on the environment. The ISO 14001 certification for AngloGold Ashanti, Obuasi Mines Environmental Management System was carried out as evidence to stakeholders of the companys compliance with the national and international environmental management standards. In this regard, the management of the mine had an essential role to play in development organisational awareness creation, sensitisation and education by explaining the concepts ISO 14001 to the entire staff and demonstrating their commitments to it before an internal audit by a independent external certification body takes place.The project was a collaborative effort by the entire staff of the mine, but the responsibility of training, awareness creation and sensitisation section of the project was duly handled over to Matilda to adequately manage all resources and logistics to ensure that all employees on the mine are satisfactorily sensitised on the concepts and procedures involved in the certification process. The attainment of the certification to a large extend depended on the understanding of the employees on the concepts of ISO 14001. It was a delicate task involving a whole complex situation considering the capacity of employees and size of the mine with a workforce of over seven thousand employees. It was a great input into her career and her leadership potentials.4.2. Leadership ManifestationLeading the team on this project was a very bold step in her career as an environmental officer and the challenges faced rugged her for greater works ahead in her life. She manifested a good leadership skill by not ruling her team, but co-ordinating with them to embark on the project. She encouraged her subordinates to make concrete decisions and sorted their opinions on how the sensitisation programme was to be run in their respective departments.She decided to train her immediate followers on how to properly organise their department. She believed in the fact that, training them will increase their competence level and make them more responsible. She agreed with the philosophy of John D. Rockefeller quoted in Hackman and Johnson, 2000 as Good leadership consists of showing average people how to do the work of superior people (Hackman Johnson, 2000). The training needs of the followers were based on their level of experience and responsibilities. All training materials, methods and means of evaluation took into account their abilities, literacy, nature of risk associated with their operations and their individual responsibilities.After having decided on the best methods of sensitisation with her followers, she deduced some objectives to get them started and to keep them in the right framework. These were to maintain ISO14001 EMSs Stan dard in the training Program, to develop better employee education and training on the importance of ISO 14001, Improve communication with stakeholders/interested parties and to verify the conformance of the training efforts to regulatory or organisational requirementsA great Leadership skill was manifested in solving the problems faced during the execution of the projects. Her ability to adapt to immediate corrective actions in solving them and getting the task completed made her very competent. Her display of good emotional stability in addressing the issues and taking into consideration the different characters and levels of intelligence contributed immensely to the success of the project. Coming down to the social levels of the followers and making them cheerful despite their social standings was a factor that took all inferiority out of the followers and eliminated all barriers to her position as a the youngest female leader. The challenge of working out of office hours to dul y complete the task within the set time before the internal audit added so much to her credibility as a leader since she was perceived as a leader who leads by example and was very passionate with her duties.4.3 Comparing the learnt theories to case study 3A critical analysis of the case study based on the theories leant reflects the leadership skills manifested in Matildas case as a combination of most of the leadership approaches. An illustration on how her approaches was analysed based on the theories are discussed below4.3.1 Trait Approach4.3.1.1. Interpersonal Factors She was not limited by her gender or age but maintained a good composure and displayed extreme confidence in leading followers who were much older than her with some having higher academic attainments and work experiences than she had.4.3.1.2. Cognitive Factors Her approaches to handling the challenges and solving problems associated with the project displayed her level of intelligence in her field of study and career. She tactfully handled the issues with due consideration to the followers view points and not unnecessarily discriminating. This attribute was greatly admired by her followers.4.3.1.3. PersonalityNeuroticism (Emotional Stability) Preparation of the training materials with due considerations to the competence and intelligence levels of the followers by eliminating all inferiorities and superiorities was a great way of displaying emotional stability which was a key factor in the program.Extraversion (Sociability) Her socialising approaches with the followers in meeting at clubs or restaurants after office hours, discussing other family and personal life issues broke every tension and gave the followers the edge of contributing their entire quota without feeling intimidated.Openness to experience (Creativity) The different sensitising training materials and approaches such as the use of videos, seminars, gift vouchers, floats, debates and awards of certificates of competence et c was a very creative approach which helped to adequately blame the message across without necessarily bombarding them with endless boring literature.Agreeableness (Trusting) She trusted her followers as being competent enough to lead their respective departments and this was based on the fact that they were adequately trained in all the systems and procedures involved and equally up to the task.Conscientiousness (Organised) The outlined objective established by the leader to keep them in the right framework and to ensure their program followed a guided path displayed her skills as being a well organised leader. Project charters were also used to evaluate the progress of the program.4.3.2. Situational Approach The situational approach was duly adopted by Matilda considering the fact that contextual intelligence was very much implemented. The impact of past environmental practices were considered leading to the adaptation of current trends in making concrete commitments to the futur e trends. The situational approach also recognised and adapted two factors under the Fiedlers contingency model. That is the task structure and team relationship (Hackman Johnson, 2000). The task structure in her case was based on the fact that, all the sensitisation program was subjected to specific procedures, agreed upon outcomes and a comprehensive evaluation of the processes and outcomes. The interpersonal relationship among the team can be classified as a good one as there was harmony in the decision making process and the avoidance of all personal issues that had the potential of marring the established relationship.4.3.3. Transformational Approach The leaders interactive nature of communicating with the followers on every detail that needed to be done and on the progress is a proper demonstration of the transformational leadership approach. The act of empowering the followers by adequately training them to become highly competent and encouraging them to participate and be i nvolve in the decision making was an approach that greatly paid off in the project. With due consideration of the workforce of over 7000 people to be sensitised, there was no way of accomplishing the goal if followers were not trained to take up the responsibilities of sensitising the workers and contractors in their respective departmentsLessons learnt from the courseThis course clarifies the fact that every leaders competence and skills are greatly based on the attitude of the followers and the outcome of the specific task being handled. Irrespective of the fact that most people are of the opinions that great leaders are born, this case of leadership skill is a proper demonstration of the fact that leaders are made and not born. This is supported with the statement made by Vince Lombardi in Hackman and Johnson, (2000) that, Leaders are made, not born. They a

Impact of Media in Shaping Perceptions and Policies

Impact of Media in Shaping Perceptions and PoliciesCHAPTER IINTRODUCTIONThe Information Age has seen a shift key in the nature of war. The emerging trend is towards low intensity conflicts and proxy war waged between states and non-state actors. Information war, Information Operations and Psychological Operations necessitate come to dominate the battle space. Besides military dominance, warring sides arrive to pee-pee positive perception to gain international support and public toleration towards their strategic goals. The media, including print, radio, television and internet has become a preferred channel to this end. History is studded with a number of instances where media was effectively utilized to shape perceptions and check the will of anyies as well as adversaries. Right from the Boer struggle, World contends One and Two, the Vietnam War and the various Gulf conflicts, the victors have successfully conducted intensive campaigns to create and sustain a favorable nar rative. The United States of America, during Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and Operation Iraqi Freedom in Iraq embedded journalists with its frontline forces. As a consequence, the world-wide audience was exposed to a new intensity and immediacy of combat never before experienced. The massive study overload thus produced close to entirely favored the United States and its Coalition allies. Despite criticism for indiscriminate and surveyive broadcasting of violence without context or commentary, the embedded journalists garnered the bulk of global attention and were faithful purveyors of the Coalition narrative.In the Indian context, the war of 1971 was an example where media, including international war correspondents, accompanied the forces advancing in the East. There was no test made to either hinder or influence their reporting. At present, the Indian Army is faced with a proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir where both the thwarter state and its non-state proxies con test the nation in the military, political as well as the information domain. The violent actions of terrorist groups are complemented by a massive media offensive. The aim is to influence perceptions of the domestic audience and the global community. Then Chief of Army Staff, General B C Joshi, had referred to the media as a Force Multiplier duration giving out guidelines to the Army deployed in proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir in 1994.1 Until Kargil, the thrust of Army Media interaction was to highlight the Armys government agency in Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief, focus on sports, jubilee celebrations and to avoid media glare during operations. However, the 1999 Kargil conflict was a watershed in wartime reporting. Until then, media was viewed as a interfering diversion at best and a threat to Operational Security at worst. During the conflict, the Indian Army realized the potential of the media to gain an Information Warfare advantage over the adversary. In view of this experience, and in line with the report of the Kargil Review Committee report, the Army changed its media policy. It is perhaps time to take a inform from the United States of America and explore the feasibility of embedding journalists with troops assiduous in fighting the proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir. At first glance, the concept seems impossible and pointless however, a strong case may exist in its favor.METHODOLOGYStatement of the ProblemThe impact of media in shaping perceptions and influencing policies needs no further establish. However, the Information Warfare advantage that may be gained by the Indian Army in the proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir from embedded journalists has not been studied in detail. With a visible slant in media against the prolonged military campaign in general and the Armed Forces Special powers Act in particular, there is a need to analyze the likely results of embedded journalists. Is the experience of Coalition forces in the Global War On Terrorism relevant to the Indian context? Is there a need to modify the concept of media interaction accordingly? Will the outcome justify the risks?HypothesisEmbedding journalists with troops engaged in proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir will present an Information Warfare advantage to the Indian Army.Justification of the StudyAt present, the Indian Army is subsisting to the reality of conducting operations in the full glare of the media. However, there is little enthusiasm among the majority of the rank and file towards media interaction. The anti-establishment tone of the vernacular media has fostered a grit of passive hostility towards all media in general. The possibility of embedded journalists revealing classified information and indulging in sensationalizing sensitive issues has also influenced the leadership to intimidate the scope of media interaction in proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir.ScopeThe scope of the study being vast, the paper concentrates on the possible implication s of embedding journalists with troops engaged in proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir. The paper highlights the need to increase media interaction and brings out the advantages of ensuring broadcast of a favorable narrative across all forms of media. It also aims to support the hypothesis with research on similar initiatives elsewhere in time and space.Operational DefinitionsThe special terms used in this talk are defined below -(a)Information Warfare.2The offensive and defensive use of information and information systems to deny, exploit, corrupt or destroy an adversarys information, information based processes, information systems, and computer based networks while protecting ones own. Such actions are designed to achieve advantages over military or political adversaries.(b)Information Operations.3The integrated employment of electronic warfare, computer network operations, psychological operations, military deception, and operations security, in concert with specified supporting and related to capabilities, to influence, disrupt, corrupt or usurp adversarial human and automated decision making, while protecting our own.(c)Psychological Operations.4Efforts to convey selected truthful information and indicators to foreign audiences to influence their emotions, motives, quarry reasoning and ultimately, the behavior of their governments, organizations, groups and individuals.Methods of Data CollectionThe sources of reference are -(a) Books from Defence Services Staff College library.(b) Articles from newspapers, magazines and journals.(c) Articles from the Internet.(d) Interactions with serving and retired Army officers, journalists and bureaucrats.Organization of the DissertationIt is proposed to study the subject in the following manner -(a)Chapter I. Introduction and Methodology.(b)Chapter II. Historical Background of Army Media Relationship. This chapter covers the origin of modern combat journalism and the rise in the influence of media in conflicts.(c)Chap ter III. Information Operations and Media. This chapter highlights the utilization of media for perception shaping and conducting successful Information Operations. A special case is made of the Kargil conflict, 1993.(d)Chapter IV. Embedded Journalists in the Global War On Terror. This chapter looks at the Coalition experience of embedded journalism to draw relevant lessons for the Indian context.(e)Chapter V. Suggested Contours of Media Interaction. This chapter draws a theoretical model for embedded journalism in Jammu and Kashmir, to meet the requirements of the Indian Army.(f)Chapter VI. Advantages from Embedded Journalists in Jammu and. This chapter relates the relevance of embedded media in fighting proxy war in Jammu and Kashmir.(g)Chapter VII. Conclusion. The conclusion will knit unitedly the relevant aspects of all chapters to summarize the research and point the way ahead. The final statement of the hypothesis will be made in light of the evidence studied. While the paper will be ended, there will pointers to further research included, given the vast scope of the subject.1 Chakraborty, A K Information War Challenges In The Twentyfirst Century. Noida Trishul, 2003, p.15.2 Forest, James J.F.,ed. Influence Warfare How Terrorists And Governments Fight To Shape Perceptions In A War Of Ideas. New Delhi Pentagon Press, 2010, p.10.3 ibidem4 ibidem

Essay --

Healthcare Policy is an area that is well entrenched into European politics and society. The issue of healthcare takes on different roles and involves many a nonher(prenominal) different functions throughout many countries in Europe. Many countries in Europe use a make water of regime healthcare system, while other take a hybrid plan between government and private healthcare, while other take a private healthcare form altogether. The two countries I will be focusing on our Italy and Britain and the issue of healthcare in their two respected countries, and advance analyzing how they were formed, what their polity entails and how it works, and also the similarities and differences between both their healthcare polices, and through that information the pros and cons of each plan. When examining the issue of healthcare and the policy it is better known as a policy that looks to address the medical issues for citizens of each respected country. These medical services are issued thr ough a thing known as health insurance. First this insurance can be made through the government or private insurance companies. Secondly, you look to suck in what these health programs and insurance provide, and that is doctor visits, drugs, medical procedures, and surgeries and many other things which can differ through the plans given. But also healthcare policy also looks to the supplier and that is hospitals and doctors, they could be private or public hospitals, or the policy could be where people can choose their doctors or are given doctors. These are the many issues that make up a healthcare policy and the different options it brings mainly focusing on a government healthcare policy or a private healthcare policy. Italy is a country that has a healthcare policy that is a mi... ...fully government run and operated. This is a healthcare system that is provided through the government and paid for through taxation of the linked Kingdom citizens. The healthcare system of th e United Kingdom is run by National Health Service of the United Kingdom or NHS (Allianz). This is healthcare that is thought to be inexpensive and free in some instances. This British healthcare program covers things as medical treatments, and doctors visits, just now requires a fee for drugs, and optical examinations and glasses and also dental treatment (Allianz). In regards to doctors in the United Kingdom healthcare system individuals are not given the choice of their doctor. In the United Kingdom there are both private and state run hospitals. In regards to the hospitals not every hospital provides emergency care services, but ones that do will treat any individual (Allianz).